The real face of Anne Boleyn may have finally been revealed after her identity was plunged into question earlier this year.
A team of computer scientists believe they have uncovered a previously-unknown sketch of Henry VIII's second wife using facial recognition technology on a celebrated collection of Tudor portraits.
The University of Bradford-led research team describes the discovery as "exciting."
Boleyn married Henry VIII in 1533 but reigned for only three years before her execution on charges of adultery, incest and treason.
Every painted portrait of her was created after her death, leaving her true appearance a mystery that has fascinated historians for centuries.
"The result has shocked us completely," said Karen Davies, the lead author of the research.
Her team believes the algorithm identified a sketch of Boleyn which has been hiding in plain sight as an "unidentified woman" for hundreds of years.
"We don't have a lifetime painted portrait of her that's absolutely secure, a wonderful painting that we can use as a reference point," said Dr Charlotte Bolland, a senior curator at the National Portrait Gallery.
Dr Bolland notes that Boleyn's brief reign got in the way of an established visual record of her appearance.
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"There is this tantalising suggestion that perhaps some of her images might have been deliberately destroyed," she adds.
Ms Davies has been working as a cleaner since August 2024 to fund her historical research passion.
She connected with the university's Professor Hassan Ugail after mentioning her project to a client.
Ms Davies had long doubted a famous sketch by German painter Hans Holbein actually depicted Boleyn, pointing to questions about the sitter's informal dress, light hair and full chin.
The facial recognition algorithm compared digital copies of drawings in the Holbein collection, examining key facial features across each sketch.
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Every painted portrait of Anne Boleyn - including this one at Hever Castle - was created after her death, leaving her true appearance a mystery
"What we are looking at is a bunch of drawings, and then we are comparing these drawings through a machine-learned algorithm," Prof Ugail said.
Without an agreed-upon lifetime likeness of Boleyn, the researchers compared the sketches to her first cousins and daughter Elizabeth I to identify any family resemblances.
"We've used drawings that we absolutely know are non-relations and they don't cluster," Ms Davies said.
The algorithm rates facial similarity through "percentage clustering", a way of grouping things based on how similar they are.
This let researchers build a visual family tree based on shared facial features.
Boleyn married Henry VIII in 1533 but reigned for only three years before her execution
Though the peer-reviewed research has undergone rigorous checks before publication, art historian Dr Bendor Grosvenor has thrown it out entirely.
"I think, academically, I would describe it as a load of old phooey," says Dr Grosvenor, who believes many colleagues are too nervous to speak out.
He questions whether artworks can be analysed like modern photographs and remains convinced the labelled Holbein sketch is genuine.
Grosvenor argues the sketch was identified by someone who knew Boleyn, the blonde hair resulted from a darker topcoat rubbing off, and the informal dress indicated high status.
"The incredible emotional tragedy of her life is this story that people want to revisit," says Dr Bolland.
"I don't get worked up about it," Prof Ugail responded to critics. "The results are results, isn't it?"